Shocking events in the late 1950s shook Americans’ confidence and led to a sense of insecurity about the country’s global standing. Three episodes in particular—the Soviet launch of the Sputnik 1 satellite, the rise of Fidel Castro in Cuba, and the U-2 spy plane affair—led Kennedy to argue that the administration of his predecessor, Dwight D. Eisenhower, had diminished America’s image in the world.

The Sputnik 1 launch by the Soviet Union in 1957 dealt a blow to Americans’ self-image. Being the first to launch an artificial satellite into orbit showed an unexpected Soviet technological prowess and led to a sense of unease among citizens in the US about the country’s ability to compete on the global stage. Additionally, the Sputnik launch raised concerns about national security because it demonstrated the Soviet Union’s ability to launch nuclear missiles capable of reaching the US.

Another challenge to American status was the rise of Fidel Castro in Cuba. The US had long been involved in Cuban affairs, supporting the government of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista. However, in 1959, revolutionaries led by Castro overthrew Batista’s government and established a communist regime. The presence of a communist government so close to home alarmed American policymakers, who feared that Cuba would become a staging ground for Soviet aggression in the Western Hemisphere.