Humans and other animals typically react to the unknown first with fear, then with curiosity, and then with creative exploratory behavior. This pattern of reaction to the unknown is mostly involuntary or reflexive, as Russian scientists such as Pavlov and E.N. Sokolov established. Though the reflexes themselves may be involuntary, what humans and animals consider the unknown varies by their frame of reference and is therefore always subjective. Moreover, the unknown manifests itself in two forms: inconveniences and catastrophes. The catastrophic form often spurs meaningful adaptation or growth.

As an example, a man already late for a meeting in the next building experiences further delays when the elevator stops working and he must take the stairs, slow-moving pedestrians crowd the road, and in his hurry to get to the building he barely escapes being hit by a bus. Thus, he undergoes a whole slew of emotions by the time he finally gets to the meeting—but these are mere inconveniences, in which the unknown shows itself in predictable or familiar ways. Inconveniences don’t compel the man to reevaluate his life or change his vision of the future. Once the man returns from the meeting, however, he experiences more of a catastrophe.