The River of Doubt: Theodore Roosevelt’s Darkest Journey (2005) is a work of nonfiction by Candice Millard, a former writer and editor for National Geographic. The book describes Roosevelt’s 1914 expedition down an unexplored river in the Amazon rainforest, which nearly cost him his life. Despite poor preparation for the trip, Roosevelt and the group managed to overcome the Amazon’s physical and psychological challenges and placed a 1,000-mile river on the map in a historic accomplishment. The book became a New York Times Best Seller and was a finalist for the Quill Award.

This study guide uses the 2006 Anchor paperback edition.

Note: Millard uses the term “Indians” to refer to the Indigenous peoples of South America. Apart from direct quotations from the text, this guide uses the term Indigenous.

Content Warning: The source text contains discussions of death by suicide.

Summary

After Theodore Roosevelt ran for US president on a third-party ticket in 1912, his Republican friends blamed him for their party’s loss to the Democrat, Woodrow Wilson. Roosevelt, who had the habit of taking on physical challenges and dangers after setbacks, traveled to South America as a guest lecturer and decided to go on an expedition there following his speaking tour.

Enlisting the support of the American Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt delegated the planning of the trip to others. Father John Zahm, a professor of science at Notre Dame, assumed that responsibility. Zahm was not qualified for the role and made poor choices while making the preparations. With the museum’s blessing, plans were made for a trip down previously explored waterways with two experienced naturalists in attendance. It was to be a safe and enjoyable adventure.

Roosevelt’s wife, Edith, accompanied him on the speaking tour and requested that their son, Kermit, join the expedition to ensure his father’s safety. Kermit agreed to do so. Once in South America, the foreign minister asked Roosevelt why he was not sailing down an unexplored river. In a snap decision, Roosevelt changed the itinerary to an exploration of the River of Doubt. Discovered by Colonel Cândido Mariano da Silva Rondon, who was to be Roosevelt’s guide on the expedition, the River of Doubt offered a more exciting and perilous journey.

The unpreparedness of the group became immediately apparent. Given the harsh conditions, the pack animals began dying and luggage and boats had to be left behind. Food rations were already diminishing as well. When the group finally reached the River of Doubt, it was clear that the team should be reduced. Anthony Fiala and Zahm were among those cut. Zahm had alienated Rondon and most of the others with his racist comments, especially since several of the Brazilian expeditionary members were Black. Rondon was a strong advocate of the rights of Indigenous peoples: He went so far as to command his men to die before killing an Indigenous person—even in self-defense.

As the group had arrived at the river with no boats, they had to purchase some from the Nhambiquara people, with whom Rondon had made peace. The boats were dugout trees, which were heavy and difficult to navigate. Once the 22-person expedition began its descent of the river, the going was very slow due to Rondon’s accurate method of surveying. The group faced many hidden dangers in the river and jungle, including poisonous snakes, piranhas, and insects carrying diseases. The advanced state of evolution in the Amazon jungle made it extremely difficult for the men to find food. Plants hid their fruit from unwanted predators and animals were expert at staying invisible. With rations dwindling, hunger was constant on the trip. The unknown river proceeded from hills into a basin, which caused rapids and waterfalls. On the many occasions when the group encountered these dangers, the members had to navigate the waters or transport heavy boats over difficult terrain. On one occasion, a Brazilian member of the expedition drowned in the rapids.

Soon after while camping, Rondon went hunting with his dog. Running ahead, the dog was shot with a poisonous arrow. Rondon was able to retreat to safety. An Indigenous group, the Cinta Larga, had shot the dog. The men knew that they were being watched but never saw anyone. The Cinta Larga required unanimous support for group decisions. Since some wanted to remain invisible and not attack the expedition, Roosevelt’s group—which was an easy and visible target—made it through their territory.

Due to the rapids, boats were lost at times and the men had to build new ones, causing delays. On one occasion, the men jumped into the river to save a boat. Roosevelt cut his leg on a sharp boulder and it became infected. That infection and his malaria caused him to become very ill with a high fever. When the group reached waterfalls that appeared insurmountable, they decided to proceed on foot. At that point, Roosevelt vowed to die by suicide so as not to slow progress and endanger others in the expedition. Kermit refused to allow this to happen. Instead, Kermit found a way to use ropes to lower the boats over the falls. Roosevelt then willed himself to live and refused to be carried to the next campsite.

Not placing himself above others, Roosevelt befriended the Brazilians and Americans on the expedition. He shared his rations with the soldiers and told them stories at night. Even when ill, his ideals of masculinity demanded that he rise to the occasion and meet physical challenges. Roosevelt greatly admired all the Brazilians in the expedition, except for Julio de Lima. Unlike the others, de Lima was not a hard worker and was caught stealing rations. When the Brazilian leader of the enlisted men, Paishon, called him to task for his actions, de Lima murdered him. All—including an ailing Roosevelt—chased after him, fearing that he would next kill another Brazilian who reported the theft.

In the end, de Lima got away and the group later spotted him on the riverbank beckoning for help. The group did not stop. When they came upon a large tributary, Rondon ordered the expedition delayed and sent scouts back to search for de Lima. Roosevelt was outraged and suspected an ulterior motive: Rondon’s desire to survey the tributary properly. While Rondon’s slow and accurate method of surveying had long been abandoned, his determination to survey as much as he could was a source of friction with the Americans, who wanted to speed up the expedition.

Finally, with the men starving and many very ill with malaria and dysentery, they came across Brazilian rubber tappers who sold them food and equipment and helped them navigate the next set of rapids. By this time, Roosevelt’s infection was so bad that the physician on the trip had to operate on his leg without anesthesia. Fifteen days later, the group reached the rendezvous with Rondon’s lieutenant. Rondon had guessed correctly as to the destination of the unknown river—now named for Roosevelt who had lost 55 pounds and was gravely ill.

On May 19, 1914, Roosevelt sailed into New York harbor. His appearance shocked observers, as he had lost his physical vigor. The accomplishment of putting a 1,000-mile river on the map was so great that it was met with skepticism from other explorers. Facing down his critics, Roosevelt convinced the world of this accomplishment. The perilous journey took years off Roosevelt’s life, as he continued to battle infection and malaria at a time when antibiotics were yet to be developed. He died in 1919.